J. Biosci. Agric. Res. | Volume 34, Issue 01, 2717-2729 | https://doi.org/10.18801/jbar.340125.326
Article type: Research article | Received: 27.07.2024; Revised: 20.12.2024; First published online: 04 April, 2025
Article type: Research article | Received: 27.07.2024; Revised: 20.12.2024; First published online: 04 April, 2025
Effect of time and level of detopping on grain and fodder yield of maize (Zea mays L.)
Runa Akther Juthi, Md. Fakhrul Islam, Partha Sarathi Das and Md. Mokhlasur Rahman
Department of Fisheries, Bangamata Sheikh Fojilatunnesa Mujib Science and Technology
University, Melandah, Jamalpur-2012, Bangladesh
✉ Corresponding author: [email protected] (Juthi, R. A.)
Department of Fisheries, Bangamata Sheikh Fojilatunnesa Mujib Science and Technology
University, Melandah, Jamalpur-2012, Bangladesh
✉ Corresponding author: [email protected] (Juthi, R. A.)
Abstract
Many xenobiotics substances released from synthetic agrochemicals which were frequently used in agriculture in Jamalpur district. A total 308 numbers of farmers and 59 other respondents were interviewed related to agriculture in Jamalpur, Melandah, Madargonj, Sarishabari, and Islampur Upazila. The peak season of chemical application was in various culture periods from October to May. Pesticides, Urea, TSP, MoP and DAP fertilizers were used more than recommended doses in rice, maize, jute, sugarcane, vegetables and mustard culture. Most of the pesticides used were found severely toxic to health, such as Organophosphate, Diazinon, Malathion, Cypermathrine, Acephate, Carbofuran, Chlorophyrifos, Cartap etc. and some were banned in Bangladesh but still being used frequently in the study area. No farmers had enough knowledge of restricted chemicals and safely handling process. 89% of farmers had sold agro products without maintaining withdrawal period. 82% of farmers found treatment from non-expert personnel like dealers or sub-dealers. 30% of farmers attended the training on IPM (Integrated Pest Management) but didn’t follow properly. Only 5% small scale farmers had practiced organic culture. Maximum farmers were found suffering from acute and non-acute diseases generally caused by xenobiotic pollution. There were less monitoring system and active rules on drug purchase, use, harvesting and marketing. These careless applications of agrochemicals poses an extensive risk to humans, animals, loss of fisheries biodiversity. Excessive leftover chemical residues can effect the organic components of soil and waterbody. This study offers guidelines for further study and seeks attention of the authorities of these related fields to take proper steps to control the hidden effects of xenobiotics.
Key Words: Agrochemicals, Xenoiotics, Pesticides, Pollution, Risk, Fisheries and Human health.
Many xenobiotics substances released from synthetic agrochemicals which were frequently used in agriculture in Jamalpur district. A total 308 numbers of farmers and 59 other respondents were interviewed related to agriculture in Jamalpur, Melandah, Madargonj, Sarishabari, and Islampur Upazila. The peak season of chemical application was in various culture periods from October to May. Pesticides, Urea, TSP, MoP and DAP fertilizers were used more than recommended doses in rice, maize, jute, sugarcane, vegetables and mustard culture. Most of the pesticides used were found severely toxic to health, such as Organophosphate, Diazinon, Malathion, Cypermathrine, Acephate, Carbofuran, Chlorophyrifos, Cartap etc. and some were banned in Bangladesh but still being used frequently in the study area. No farmers had enough knowledge of restricted chemicals and safely handling process. 89% of farmers had sold agro products without maintaining withdrawal period. 82% of farmers found treatment from non-expert personnel like dealers or sub-dealers. 30% of farmers attended the training on IPM (Integrated Pest Management) but didn’t follow properly. Only 5% small scale farmers had practiced organic culture. Maximum farmers were found suffering from acute and non-acute diseases generally caused by xenobiotic pollution. There were less monitoring system and active rules on drug purchase, use, harvesting and marketing. These careless applications of agrochemicals poses an extensive risk to humans, animals, loss of fisheries biodiversity. Excessive leftover chemical residues can effect the organic components of soil and waterbody. This study offers guidelines for further study and seeks attention of the authorities of these related fields to take proper steps to control the hidden effects of xenobiotics.
Key Words: Agrochemicals, Xenoiotics, Pesticides, Pollution, Risk, Fisheries and Human health.
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I. Introduction
Environmental pollution by xenobiotics is now a worldwide phenomenon. Xenobiotics are foreign synthetic chemical substances which are not naturally produce by an organism. These non-nutrient compounds mainly come from human activities, such as the discharge of harmful compounds such as drugs, pesticides, chemicals, industrial wastes, sewage runoff, detergent, antioxidants, etc.
Pesticides have become an integral part of modern agriculture as they are used for protecting and boosting crop and vegetable production (Oerke, 2006; Verger and Boobis, 2013). Farmers apply pesticides without understanding their actual requirements or efficacy, resulting in high pesticide application frequencies in Bangladesh (BARI, 2018). In Bangladesh, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, organo-phosphates, pyrethroids, Organochlorine, Chromium and carbamates insecticides were banned from the market due to their severe level of toxicity in environment (Jallow et al., 2017) but still being used frequently. Around 95% of farmers did not wait for the pre-harvest interval (PHI) following pesticide application (DAE, 2016). The leftover pesticide residues remain in soil and water. Some xenobiotic residues are long-lasting and may persevere for a few months to years. Several published reports identified Lead, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Arsenic, Zink, Manganese, Iron, Potassium, Bicarbonate, Chlorine, and Sulfate ion as common inorganic contaminants in the surface and groundwater of Bangladesh (Akter et al., 2015; Zakir et al., 2015; Zakir et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2017). Because of heavy pesticide chemicals, some countries have restricted the import of vegetables from Bangladesh (Mert et al., 2022). These pesticides affect the target organisms and the whole environment, including the atmosphere, soil, groundwater, and surface water, by flow, leaching, and pulverization processes (Nsibande and Forbes, 2016). Contact with pesticides through long-term exposure harms human life and disturbs the function of different body organs such as the nervous, endocrine, immune, reproductive, renal, cardiovascular and respiratory systems (Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2013).
This research was done in five main Upazilas in the Jamalpur district. The people of this area mainly depend on agriculture (65.50%) for food and economy (Banglapedia, 2023). More than 90% of the groundwater is used for irrigation, and about 95% of the population relies on this as the source of drinking water (Hossain, 2000). Jamalpur is tropical in nature and favorable for growth of various microorganisms, insects and weeds. So, agriculture becomes difficult without applying fertilizer and insecticide. During monsoon, the maximum agricultural land flooded with washed-out water and turned into vast extensive water bodies. The downward water carry leftover chemicals which is dangerous for fish, larvae, primary food production, breeding ground, reproduction, microorganism resistance, birds, animals, and humans. The presence of xenobiotics in vegetables, fruits, water and soil of Jamalpur has been found in some previous scientific reports.
No recent research has been found in the Jamalpur district on the usage of agrochemicals. To live in a better environment, knowledge of pesticide use and its impact on the environment is very important (Juthi et al., 2017). So, this study aims to research, evaluate, and summarize the total scenario of agrochemicals use and their fate after application in Jamalpur. The Government of Bangladesh is now working with FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) to update the pesticide rules under the Pesticide Act of 2018, prioritizing public health and environmental protection (FAO, 2023). This study will help the scientific community realize the need for further research on xenobiotic contamination to mitigate the current circumstances.
II. Materials and Methods
Study area of sampling: The study was carried out in the five upazila named Jamalpur, Melandaha, Madargonj, Sarishabari, Islampur of Jamalpur district from Mymensingh division, Bangladesh (Figure 01). It was a flood plain area covered with many water resources such as old Brahmaputra river, Jamuna river, Banar, Madardhaw, Singar, Bubil, Raumari Beel, Raoha Beel, Bamunji Beel, Kaiswer Beel, Chatal Beel, Kaludaga Lake etc.
Study period: Data was collected from the middle of March, 2023 to July, 2024. Primary data were taken from different locations in Jamalpur district. Marketing system of drugs and fertilizer, agricultural field conditions, farmer's perceptions, farmers activities with agrochemicals use etc. were observed very carefully during summer, monsoon and winter seasons.
Figure 01. Jamalpur district (study area) *Source: Wikipedia
Collection of data: The research work was conducted on the base of primary and secondary sources. Almost 308 farmers and 59 other related respondents were interviewed to collect data (Table 01). Farmers directly involved in agriculture were selected randomly for surveys. Primary data were collected through direct face-to-face interviews and target and focus group discussions from different study area locations. We have prepared a set of relevant questionnaires for data collection. Everyone was asked the same questions. Answers to each question were carefully understood and recorded on paper. Secondary data was collected from many online journals, literature reviews, newspapers, websites, government publications, etc. Then, all the recorded data and answers were checked, organized, verified and finalized for the study.
Table 01. Number of key respondents in different upazila
Data processing and analysis: The recorded data were checked to confirm no errors or disagreements. Data was organized and analyzed using Microsoft word (2013) and Microsoft Excel. Finally, findings were presented in textual, visual graphics and tabular formats.
III. Results and Discussion
The study area was mainly a floodplain area. Its surface soil was silty loams and bottom area was clay. In dry season farmers used river and ground water to irrigate their fields. During monsoon season, the low-laying lands and all the water bodies received huge washed-out runoff water from the adjacent area. Insect attacks were the most common problem in vegetables, maize, sugarcane, rice production. Synthetic chemicals were highly used in almost all farming systems to increase soil fertility, higher yield, treatment of disease or control the pest, which causes xenobiotics toxicity and loss of existing biodiversity.
Major cultivated products
The two major rice crops cultivated in Jamalpur were Aman (rain fed) and Boro (irrigated). Heavy rainfall, floods and river erosion badly hinder the growth of the Aush area each year. It also affected the planting time of Aman crops in maximum area. So, the cultivation of Boro rice was found the most dominant crop. Other high yielding cultured products were found Sugarcane, Jute, Mustard, Maize, Chili, Potato, Pulses etc. Based on culture period, the mostly cultured vegetables are categorized into three seasons:
All season products: Papaya, Red Amaranth, Spinach, HYV Gourds, Ginger, Cucumber, HYV Tomato, Chili, Ladys Finger, Okra, Eggplant, Carrot.
Summer season products (Locally called ‘Kharif’): Jute, Pulses, Maize, Potato, Groundnut, Turmeric, Cotton, Sesame, vegetables.
Winter season products (Locally called ‘Rabi’): Mustard, Maize, Sugarcane, Potato, Wheat, Eggplant, Cauliflower, Lentil, Cabbage, Tomato, Beans, Oil seeds, Coriander, Reddish, carrot (Table 02).
Table 02: Yearly calendar of agriculture in Jamalpur.
The fertilizer and pesticide use depended on the culture season of various products. In the study area, the Boro rice and winter season period was the peak season of pesticides use. Maximum number of farmers, 77% were used to culture Boro rice, 64% of farmers cultured Aman crop, 67% of farmers cultivated in winter season, 12% of farmers cultured Aush rice, 23% of farmers cultured in summer season and 38% farmers were cultured vegetable and rice all the year round (Figure 02). The harmful pest growth was higher from September to March. Pest attack was found lower in summer to rainy season than in winter. During other seasons, the frequency of drug application were found at a minimum level because of flood, rain and lower risk of pest attacks.
Figure 02. Peak and off-peak season of agrochemicals use (N=308)
Source and distribution channel of agrochemicals
Agrochemicals requirements were mainly met through various private drug companies. The common agro-medicine companies supplied their products: Syngenta, ACI Animal Health, Macdonalds Bangladesh Pvt. Ltd, Auto Crop Care Ltd, Square Pharmaceuticals, Green Bangla Agro Tech. etc. The distributor of these factories was supplied the manufactured product to the dealers. Then the retailer or sub dealers collected these products and sold them to the local farmers (Figure 03). A few government-listed farmers found fertilizer in their Upazila Parishod. Maximum number of farmers, 56% bought fertilizer and pesticides from dealers and 35% of farmers bought from the sub-dealer of nearby markets.
Figure 03. Distribution Channel and Source of Agrochemicals in Jamalpur
Commonly used agrochemicals
Fertilizer applications were dependent on different species and soil fertility. The major fertilizers used were found Urea, Triple Supper Phosphate (TSP), Diammonium phosphate (DAP), Muriate of Potash (MoP), Gypsums, Boron, Zink (ZnSO4), etc. MoP, TSP, DAP and Gypsum use were frequent and higher rate than the recommended doses in the rice culture (Table 3.1). Generally, the need of fertilizer and pesticide use is six times higher for vegetables than for the rice (Debnath and Rahman, 2015). Only 5% of farmers used organic manure to fertilize their land. In Maize culture, DAP, Urea and TSP were applied almost twice the recommended dose. The amount of TSP and Urea used for sugarcane was much higher than rice culture. It is observed that fertilizer doses exceeded the recommended level in every culture system.
Table 3.1 Amount of fertilizer used in rice culture *Source (BARC, Fertilizer recommendation guide, 2012)
Table 3.2 Amount of fertilizer used in Maize culture *Source (BARC, Fertilizer recommendation guide, 2012)
Table 3.4 Amount of fertilizer used in Sugarcane culture
Table. 3.6: Amount of fertilizer used in vegetables culture
Several types of soil fertilizer, insecticides, weedicides, fungicides and pesticides were found used by farmers. Commonly used chemicals name, application doses were noted, as shown in (Table. 3.7). The commonly used pesticides found were the group of Organophosphate, Diazinon, Malathion, Cypermathrine, Acephate, Carbofuran, Chlorophyrifos, Cartap, Benzene, Quinalphos, Fenitrothion, Toluene etc. Most of these pesticides have relatively high soil degradation time (40 days) and low water solubility (Barmon et al., 2021). The degradation rate of cypermethrin, diazinon, quinalphos and fenitrothion were detected up to 10 days after spraying in vegetables, while malathion and acephate were detected at 5 and 15 days, respectively (Ahmed et al., 2018; Barmon et al., 2021). Malathin degraded quickly than other chemicals and the acephate degrade slowly. Quinalphos, fenitrothion and acehate had higher waiting period of 10 days which might be due to slower rate of degradation (Barmon et al., 2021). Other chemicals groups such as Cychlorpyrifos, Cartap, Cypermathrine, Carbofuran, Ropiconazole has very long time (15 days to several months) degradation time in soil and water. It is found that HCO3, Mn, Cd and Pb were the major contaminants in groundwater of Sadar upazila of Jamalpur district, Bangladesh (Zakir et al., 2018) which are mainly found in fertilizer, pesticides, fungicides and industrial wastewater full of chemicals. Without a proper withdrawal period, these drug residual biotransformation occurs into human and animal bodies.
Table 3.7. List of Commonly Used Pesticides, Insecticides with Doses
Farmer’s perceptions behind using pesticide
Total 308 numbers of farmers were interviewed from different seasons and locations. There were found high labor cost and labor scarcity in the study area. Farmers had described that new hybrid agro products were not immune enough to withstand natural diseases or resistant pests. Seasonal insects leave eggs and make spots on the leaves, pests and rodents damage the production, distort plant leaves and roots and inhibiting growth. For this reason, 89% farmers were found continued applying pesticides right before harvesting. Chemical Retailers were also seen motivated farmers to bought specific agro products. 82% of farmers had taken consultation with pesticide sellers, whereas 18% took treatment from government extension workers or Upazila Agriculture officers (Table 04). An average of 59% of farmers had shallow knowledge of disease. Majority of farmers had no idea about banned or restricted chemicals. After investigating the consumption behaviors it was found that, they didn’t follow the application rules and withdrawal period properly. Only 5% of farmers had found out that they were trying to practice organic culture system. They claimed they received lower prices for small-sized agro products because consumers preferred the high yield varieties (HYV) products, which were more colorful and bigger than the natural. They also shared that there was a huge risk of pest infestation in organic farming. They also faced production loss and competition with other inorganic farmers. So, farmers tried to get more profit from production within a short period of time.
Table 04. Farmers' characteristics and perceptions of agriculture (N=308)
IPM and ICM knowledge of farmers
Upazila agriculture officers, extension personnel had provided several trainings, education programs for farmers awareness such as integrated pest management (IPM), integrated crop management (ICM), restricted chemicals, withdrawal period of drugs and its ecological hazards. Majority of the farmers were uninterested in attending those programs. A few farmers, 30%, had joined the training but still used agrochemicals (Table 05). 10% of farmers found understood the harmful effects of pesticides. But, due to the risk of lower production and high pest attack rate, they regret following the IPM method. Majority of farmers 60%, were found had no idea on IPM and ICM methods. They practiced traditional farming systems and applied a lot of agrochemicals and fertilizer.
Table 05. Farmers (N=308) attitude on IPM, ICM knowledge
Safety measures adopted by farmers for chemicals use
Farmers use pesticides directly in their fields: liquid, spray, powder mixture, tablet or granular form. Almost all of them (100%) were handling applying the chemicals in bare hands and foot or without any safety gear, which was dangerous for health. They washed their hands only with water after application. Some were found (42%) washed full body after application (Table 06). 11% users could read the user directions on pesticide labels and cautions. After use, the empty containers were disposed of in nature. Farmers protected livestock from entering the treated fields, but poultry birds were free in this area and had eaten feed. There was no effective monitoring system on pesticide purchase, safely use, withdrawal periods and handling in cultivation. Most of the pest and insects become chemical resistance due to their wrong apply of the agrochemicals (Juthi et al., 2017). Lack of proper rules on pesticide application was another cause of higher xenobiotic contaminations in human body.
Pathway of chemicals after application
Poultry, fish and livestock farms in Jamalpur broadly used various drugs, medicines, hormones, growth promoters and antibiotics. Their by-products, feaces were seen used as fish, animal food and soil fertilizer, which may contain these chemical residues. When pesticides are sprayed on crops and vegetables, they are brought to the market for sale without maintaining a withdrawal period, consumers get exposed to pesticide residue immediately (Miah et al., 2014). After application chemicals were found smoothly dissolved with water, absorbed by soil and plant roots. The drug residues can easily mixed and transfer from one area or organisms to another (Figure 05). Thus, xenobiotics were transferred, increasing the risk of antibiotic-resistant pathogens. They also silently enter the human and animal body through various routes like inhalation, affected food ingestion, skin absorption from air, soil or water.
Table 06. Safety Measures practiced by farmers on Chemicals Use
Figure 04. Fate of Agrochemicals after Exposed to the Environment
Figure 05. Farmers health condition after chemical use
Xenobiotic contamination on human health
Toxic xenobiotic substances are responsible for many short-term (acute) and long-term (Chronic) diseases. Acute illness in people is caused by pesticide drift from agricultural fields, irrigation and soil erosion during application (Dawson et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011). Xenobiotic contamination is very carcinogenic for human body, internal organs, which is shown in Table 07. Maximum disease symptoms do not appear externally or rapidly; they develop with time. Chronic illnesses in humans are caused by prolonged exposure to sub-lethal pesticide concentrations (years to decades) (Khatun et al., 2023). In the study area, many farmers were recorded affected by disease symptoms in their body which might be generated from toxicity of pollutants, as present in Figure 05. Unconsciously direct oral ingestion or long time contact with pesticides are deposit in body organs and can lead an organism to death. From water resources, pesticides are absorbed into fish bodies and enter the food chain, producing harmful impacts on human health (Ray et al., 2023).
Table 07. Human Health Hazards and responsible Xenobiotic Substances
Xenobiotic pollution on biodiversity and fisheries community
Xenobiotics impose toxic effects on soil organisms, reduce microbial activity, and change the soil’s physico-chemical properties (Miglani et al., 2022). In response to pesticide exposure to nature, the microbial communities were adapted to biological changes and became drug-resistant. Pesticides are largely responsible for reducing the number of natural pest predators such as earthworms, frogs, honeybees, spiders, flies, beetles, and other pollinating insects (Rahaman et al., 2018) and effected biodiversity. Livestock and poultry have also been poisoned or killed eating pesticide-affected grasses, straw or grain (Rahman and Hossain, 2003). After rain, the green grass, spinach, weeds intake nutrients from soil fertilizer quickly which causes immediate death if animals or human intake them. The first flood after rain causes huge xenobiotic contamination plankton loss, effects birds, beneficial insects, non-target organisms, fisheries community (Juthi et al., 2017). Excessive nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus caused harmful eutrophication of water. Fish farmers and hatchery owners explained that the xenobiotic pollution had reduced natural fisheries resources, decreased egg production and breeding ground, physiological changes, decreased immunity, and caused hormonal variations. Fish are exposed to environmental contaminants through their gills, skin, and food (Ray and Shaju, 2023). Histopathological changes in gills, liver, hematopoietic tissue such as the spleen, kidney, and renal tubules, in endocrine tissues as well as brain, neurological, reproductive and behavioral disorders and genetic defects were recorded in fish by exposure to insecticides (Ray and Shaju, 2023). Atmospheric emissions of toxic nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide from different nitrogen fertilizers or pesticides (Sistani et al., 2011) are responsible for lowering the oxygen level.
IV. Conclusion
In this study, the authors found no effective monitoring systems and regulations on drug purchase and usage or maintaining withdrawal periods in agriculture. Jamalpur region needs to maintain more organic farming practices and promote the sustainable use of agrochemicals. Understanding all the threats of xenobiotics, the existing laws, rules, proper culture strategy and legal frameworks must be emphasized in every culture system related to agrochemicals. However, the proper medical reports of farmers' diseases, soil and water quality test is required to know more about these findings.
Based on the findings, the following recommendations can be implemented to minimize xenobiotic pollution in environment:
Environmental pollution by xenobiotics is now a worldwide phenomenon. Xenobiotics are foreign synthetic chemical substances which are not naturally produce by an organism. These non-nutrient compounds mainly come from human activities, such as the discharge of harmful compounds such as drugs, pesticides, chemicals, industrial wastes, sewage runoff, detergent, antioxidants, etc.
Pesticides have become an integral part of modern agriculture as they are used for protecting and boosting crop and vegetable production (Oerke, 2006; Verger and Boobis, 2013). Farmers apply pesticides without understanding their actual requirements or efficacy, resulting in high pesticide application frequencies in Bangladesh (BARI, 2018). In Bangladesh, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, organo-phosphates, pyrethroids, Organochlorine, Chromium and carbamates insecticides were banned from the market due to their severe level of toxicity in environment (Jallow et al., 2017) but still being used frequently. Around 95% of farmers did not wait for the pre-harvest interval (PHI) following pesticide application (DAE, 2016). The leftover pesticide residues remain in soil and water. Some xenobiotic residues are long-lasting and may persevere for a few months to years. Several published reports identified Lead, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Arsenic, Zink, Manganese, Iron, Potassium, Bicarbonate, Chlorine, and Sulfate ion as common inorganic contaminants in the surface and groundwater of Bangladesh (Akter et al., 2015; Zakir et al., 2015; Zakir et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2017). Because of heavy pesticide chemicals, some countries have restricted the import of vegetables from Bangladesh (Mert et al., 2022). These pesticides affect the target organisms and the whole environment, including the atmosphere, soil, groundwater, and surface water, by flow, leaching, and pulverization processes (Nsibande and Forbes, 2016). Contact with pesticides through long-term exposure harms human life and disturbs the function of different body organs such as the nervous, endocrine, immune, reproductive, renal, cardiovascular and respiratory systems (Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2013).
This research was done in five main Upazilas in the Jamalpur district. The people of this area mainly depend on agriculture (65.50%) for food and economy (Banglapedia, 2023). More than 90% of the groundwater is used for irrigation, and about 95% of the population relies on this as the source of drinking water (Hossain, 2000). Jamalpur is tropical in nature and favorable for growth of various microorganisms, insects and weeds. So, agriculture becomes difficult without applying fertilizer and insecticide. During monsoon, the maximum agricultural land flooded with washed-out water and turned into vast extensive water bodies. The downward water carry leftover chemicals which is dangerous for fish, larvae, primary food production, breeding ground, reproduction, microorganism resistance, birds, animals, and humans. The presence of xenobiotics in vegetables, fruits, water and soil of Jamalpur has been found in some previous scientific reports.
No recent research has been found in the Jamalpur district on the usage of agrochemicals. To live in a better environment, knowledge of pesticide use and its impact on the environment is very important (Juthi et al., 2017). So, this study aims to research, evaluate, and summarize the total scenario of agrochemicals use and their fate after application in Jamalpur. The Government of Bangladesh is now working with FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) to update the pesticide rules under the Pesticide Act of 2018, prioritizing public health and environmental protection (FAO, 2023). This study will help the scientific community realize the need for further research on xenobiotic contamination to mitigate the current circumstances.
II. Materials and Methods
Study area of sampling: The study was carried out in the five upazila named Jamalpur, Melandaha, Madargonj, Sarishabari, Islampur of Jamalpur district from Mymensingh division, Bangladesh (Figure 01). It was a flood plain area covered with many water resources such as old Brahmaputra river, Jamuna river, Banar, Madardhaw, Singar, Bubil, Raumari Beel, Raoha Beel, Bamunji Beel, Kaiswer Beel, Chatal Beel, Kaludaga Lake etc.
Study period: Data was collected from the middle of March, 2023 to July, 2024. Primary data were taken from different locations in Jamalpur district. Marketing system of drugs and fertilizer, agricultural field conditions, farmer's perceptions, farmers activities with agrochemicals use etc. were observed very carefully during summer, monsoon and winter seasons.
Figure 01. Jamalpur district (study area) *Source: Wikipedia
Collection of data: The research work was conducted on the base of primary and secondary sources. Almost 308 farmers and 59 other related respondents were interviewed to collect data (Table 01). Farmers directly involved in agriculture were selected randomly for surveys. Primary data were collected through direct face-to-face interviews and target and focus group discussions from different study area locations. We have prepared a set of relevant questionnaires for data collection. Everyone was asked the same questions. Answers to each question were carefully understood and recorded on paper. Secondary data was collected from many online journals, literature reviews, newspapers, websites, government publications, etc. Then, all the recorded data and answers were checked, organized, verified and finalized for the study.
Table 01. Number of key respondents in different upazila
Data processing and analysis: The recorded data were checked to confirm no errors or disagreements. Data was organized and analyzed using Microsoft word (2013) and Microsoft Excel. Finally, findings were presented in textual, visual graphics and tabular formats.
III. Results and Discussion
The study area was mainly a floodplain area. Its surface soil was silty loams and bottom area was clay. In dry season farmers used river and ground water to irrigate their fields. During monsoon season, the low-laying lands and all the water bodies received huge washed-out runoff water from the adjacent area. Insect attacks were the most common problem in vegetables, maize, sugarcane, rice production. Synthetic chemicals were highly used in almost all farming systems to increase soil fertility, higher yield, treatment of disease or control the pest, which causes xenobiotics toxicity and loss of existing biodiversity.
Major cultivated products
The two major rice crops cultivated in Jamalpur were Aman (rain fed) and Boro (irrigated). Heavy rainfall, floods and river erosion badly hinder the growth of the Aush area each year. It also affected the planting time of Aman crops in maximum area. So, the cultivation of Boro rice was found the most dominant crop. Other high yielding cultured products were found Sugarcane, Jute, Mustard, Maize, Chili, Potato, Pulses etc. Based on culture period, the mostly cultured vegetables are categorized into three seasons:
All season products: Papaya, Red Amaranth, Spinach, HYV Gourds, Ginger, Cucumber, HYV Tomato, Chili, Ladys Finger, Okra, Eggplant, Carrot.
Summer season products (Locally called ‘Kharif’): Jute, Pulses, Maize, Potato, Groundnut, Turmeric, Cotton, Sesame, vegetables.
Winter season products (Locally called ‘Rabi’): Mustard, Maize, Sugarcane, Potato, Wheat, Eggplant, Cauliflower, Lentil, Cabbage, Tomato, Beans, Oil seeds, Coriander, Reddish, carrot (Table 02).
Table 02: Yearly calendar of agriculture in Jamalpur.
The fertilizer and pesticide use depended on the culture season of various products. In the study area, the Boro rice and winter season period was the peak season of pesticides use. Maximum number of farmers, 77% were used to culture Boro rice, 64% of farmers cultured Aman crop, 67% of farmers cultivated in winter season, 12% of farmers cultured Aush rice, 23% of farmers cultured in summer season and 38% farmers were cultured vegetable and rice all the year round (Figure 02). The harmful pest growth was higher from September to March. Pest attack was found lower in summer to rainy season than in winter. During other seasons, the frequency of drug application were found at a minimum level because of flood, rain and lower risk of pest attacks.
Figure 02. Peak and off-peak season of agrochemicals use (N=308)
Source and distribution channel of agrochemicals
Agrochemicals requirements were mainly met through various private drug companies. The common agro-medicine companies supplied their products: Syngenta, ACI Animal Health, Macdonalds Bangladesh Pvt. Ltd, Auto Crop Care Ltd, Square Pharmaceuticals, Green Bangla Agro Tech. etc. The distributor of these factories was supplied the manufactured product to the dealers. Then the retailer or sub dealers collected these products and sold them to the local farmers (Figure 03). A few government-listed farmers found fertilizer in their Upazila Parishod. Maximum number of farmers, 56% bought fertilizer and pesticides from dealers and 35% of farmers bought from the sub-dealer of nearby markets.
Figure 03. Distribution Channel and Source of Agrochemicals in Jamalpur
Commonly used agrochemicals
Fertilizer applications were dependent on different species and soil fertility. The major fertilizers used were found Urea, Triple Supper Phosphate (TSP), Diammonium phosphate (DAP), Muriate of Potash (MoP), Gypsums, Boron, Zink (ZnSO4), etc. MoP, TSP, DAP and Gypsum use were frequent and higher rate than the recommended doses in the rice culture (Table 3.1). Generally, the need of fertilizer and pesticide use is six times higher for vegetables than for the rice (Debnath and Rahman, 2015). Only 5% of farmers used organic manure to fertilize their land. In Maize culture, DAP, Urea and TSP were applied almost twice the recommended dose. The amount of TSP and Urea used for sugarcane was much higher than rice culture. It is observed that fertilizer doses exceeded the recommended level in every culture system.
Table 3.1 Amount of fertilizer used in rice culture *Source (BARC, Fertilizer recommendation guide, 2012)
Table 3.2 Amount of fertilizer used in Maize culture *Source (BARC, Fertilizer recommendation guide, 2012)
Table 3.4 Amount of fertilizer used in Sugarcane culture
Table. 3.6: Amount of fertilizer used in vegetables culture
Several types of soil fertilizer, insecticides, weedicides, fungicides and pesticides were found used by farmers. Commonly used chemicals name, application doses were noted, as shown in (Table. 3.7). The commonly used pesticides found were the group of Organophosphate, Diazinon, Malathion, Cypermathrine, Acephate, Carbofuran, Chlorophyrifos, Cartap, Benzene, Quinalphos, Fenitrothion, Toluene etc. Most of these pesticides have relatively high soil degradation time (40 days) and low water solubility (Barmon et al., 2021). The degradation rate of cypermethrin, diazinon, quinalphos and fenitrothion were detected up to 10 days after spraying in vegetables, while malathion and acephate were detected at 5 and 15 days, respectively (Ahmed et al., 2018; Barmon et al., 2021). Malathin degraded quickly than other chemicals and the acephate degrade slowly. Quinalphos, fenitrothion and acehate had higher waiting period of 10 days which might be due to slower rate of degradation (Barmon et al., 2021). Other chemicals groups such as Cychlorpyrifos, Cartap, Cypermathrine, Carbofuran, Ropiconazole has very long time (15 days to several months) degradation time in soil and water. It is found that HCO3, Mn, Cd and Pb were the major contaminants in groundwater of Sadar upazila of Jamalpur district, Bangladesh (Zakir et al., 2018) which are mainly found in fertilizer, pesticides, fungicides and industrial wastewater full of chemicals. Without a proper withdrawal period, these drug residual biotransformation occurs into human and animal bodies.
Table 3.7. List of Commonly Used Pesticides, Insecticides with Doses
Farmer’s perceptions behind using pesticide
Total 308 numbers of farmers were interviewed from different seasons and locations. There were found high labor cost and labor scarcity in the study area. Farmers had described that new hybrid agro products were not immune enough to withstand natural diseases or resistant pests. Seasonal insects leave eggs and make spots on the leaves, pests and rodents damage the production, distort plant leaves and roots and inhibiting growth. For this reason, 89% farmers were found continued applying pesticides right before harvesting. Chemical Retailers were also seen motivated farmers to bought specific agro products. 82% of farmers had taken consultation with pesticide sellers, whereas 18% took treatment from government extension workers or Upazila Agriculture officers (Table 04). An average of 59% of farmers had shallow knowledge of disease. Majority of farmers had no idea about banned or restricted chemicals. After investigating the consumption behaviors it was found that, they didn’t follow the application rules and withdrawal period properly. Only 5% of farmers had found out that they were trying to practice organic culture system. They claimed they received lower prices for small-sized agro products because consumers preferred the high yield varieties (HYV) products, which were more colorful and bigger than the natural. They also shared that there was a huge risk of pest infestation in organic farming. They also faced production loss and competition with other inorganic farmers. So, farmers tried to get more profit from production within a short period of time.
Table 04. Farmers' characteristics and perceptions of agriculture (N=308)
IPM and ICM knowledge of farmers
Upazila agriculture officers, extension personnel had provided several trainings, education programs for farmers awareness such as integrated pest management (IPM), integrated crop management (ICM), restricted chemicals, withdrawal period of drugs and its ecological hazards. Majority of the farmers were uninterested in attending those programs. A few farmers, 30%, had joined the training but still used agrochemicals (Table 05). 10% of farmers found understood the harmful effects of pesticides. But, due to the risk of lower production and high pest attack rate, they regret following the IPM method. Majority of farmers 60%, were found had no idea on IPM and ICM methods. They practiced traditional farming systems and applied a lot of agrochemicals and fertilizer.
Table 05. Farmers (N=308) attitude on IPM, ICM knowledge
Safety measures adopted by farmers for chemicals use
Farmers use pesticides directly in their fields: liquid, spray, powder mixture, tablet or granular form. Almost all of them (100%) were handling applying the chemicals in bare hands and foot or without any safety gear, which was dangerous for health. They washed their hands only with water after application. Some were found (42%) washed full body after application (Table 06). 11% users could read the user directions on pesticide labels and cautions. After use, the empty containers were disposed of in nature. Farmers protected livestock from entering the treated fields, but poultry birds were free in this area and had eaten feed. There was no effective monitoring system on pesticide purchase, safely use, withdrawal periods and handling in cultivation. Most of the pest and insects become chemical resistance due to their wrong apply of the agrochemicals (Juthi et al., 2017). Lack of proper rules on pesticide application was another cause of higher xenobiotic contaminations in human body.
Pathway of chemicals after application
Poultry, fish and livestock farms in Jamalpur broadly used various drugs, medicines, hormones, growth promoters and antibiotics. Their by-products, feaces were seen used as fish, animal food and soil fertilizer, which may contain these chemical residues. When pesticides are sprayed on crops and vegetables, they are brought to the market for sale without maintaining a withdrawal period, consumers get exposed to pesticide residue immediately (Miah et al., 2014). After application chemicals were found smoothly dissolved with water, absorbed by soil and plant roots. The drug residues can easily mixed and transfer from one area or organisms to another (Figure 05). Thus, xenobiotics were transferred, increasing the risk of antibiotic-resistant pathogens. They also silently enter the human and animal body through various routes like inhalation, affected food ingestion, skin absorption from air, soil or water.
Table 06. Safety Measures practiced by farmers on Chemicals Use
Figure 04. Fate of Agrochemicals after Exposed to the Environment
Figure 05. Farmers health condition after chemical use
Xenobiotic contamination on human health
Toxic xenobiotic substances are responsible for many short-term (acute) and long-term (Chronic) diseases. Acute illness in people is caused by pesticide drift from agricultural fields, irrigation and soil erosion during application (Dawson et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2011). Xenobiotic contamination is very carcinogenic for human body, internal organs, which is shown in Table 07. Maximum disease symptoms do not appear externally or rapidly; they develop with time. Chronic illnesses in humans are caused by prolonged exposure to sub-lethal pesticide concentrations (years to decades) (Khatun et al., 2023). In the study area, many farmers were recorded affected by disease symptoms in their body which might be generated from toxicity of pollutants, as present in Figure 05. Unconsciously direct oral ingestion or long time contact with pesticides are deposit in body organs and can lead an organism to death. From water resources, pesticides are absorbed into fish bodies and enter the food chain, producing harmful impacts on human health (Ray et al., 2023).
Table 07. Human Health Hazards and responsible Xenobiotic Substances
Xenobiotic pollution on biodiversity and fisheries community
Xenobiotics impose toxic effects on soil organisms, reduce microbial activity, and change the soil’s physico-chemical properties (Miglani et al., 2022). In response to pesticide exposure to nature, the microbial communities were adapted to biological changes and became drug-resistant. Pesticides are largely responsible for reducing the number of natural pest predators such as earthworms, frogs, honeybees, spiders, flies, beetles, and other pollinating insects (Rahaman et al., 2018) and effected biodiversity. Livestock and poultry have also been poisoned or killed eating pesticide-affected grasses, straw or grain (Rahman and Hossain, 2003). After rain, the green grass, spinach, weeds intake nutrients from soil fertilizer quickly which causes immediate death if animals or human intake them. The first flood after rain causes huge xenobiotic contamination plankton loss, effects birds, beneficial insects, non-target organisms, fisheries community (Juthi et al., 2017). Excessive nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus caused harmful eutrophication of water. Fish farmers and hatchery owners explained that the xenobiotic pollution had reduced natural fisheries resources, decreased egg production and breeding ground, physiological changes, decreased immunity, and caused hormonal variations. Fish are exposed to environmental contaminants through their gills, skin, and food (Ray and Shaju, 2023). Histopathological changes in gills, liver, hematopoietic tissue such as the spleen, kidney, and renal tubules, in endocrine tissues as well as brain, neurological, reproductive and behavioral disorders and genetic defects were recorded in fish by exposure to insecticides (Ray and Shaju, 2023). Atmospheric emissions of toxic nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide from different nitrogen fertilizers or pesticides (Sistani et al., 2011) are responsible for lowering the oxygen level.
IV. Conclusion
In this study, the authors found no effective monitoring systems and regulations on drug purchase and usage or maintaining withdrawal periods in agriculture. Jamalpur region needs to maintain more organic farming practices and promote the sustainable use of agrochemicals. Understanding all the threats of xenobiotics, the existing laws, rules, proper culture strategy and legal frameworks must be emphasized in every culture system related to agrochemicals. However, the proper medical reports of farmers' diseases, soil and water quality test is required to know more about these findings.
Based on the findings, the following recommendations can be implemented to minimize xenobiotic pollution in environment:
- The government should actively monitor pesticide manufacturing, selling, and application in Jamalpur.
- Farmers should use organic, herbal, bio-pesticide and sustainable cultural practices.
- More agricultural training and education programs must be covered before every culture season for farmers, dealers and producers.
- Create social awareness on health, farmer-level knowledge and their skills.
- Future investigation and more research need to be conducted regarding this study.
Article Citations:
MLA
Juthi, R. A. et al. “Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district”. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 34(01), (2025): 2717-2729.
APA
Juthi, R. A., Islam, M. F., Das, P. S. and Rahman, M. M. (2025). Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 34(01), 2717-2729.
Chicago
Juthi, R. A., Islam, M. F., Das, P. S. and Rahman, M. M. “Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district”. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 34(01), (2025): 2717-2729.
Harvard
Juthi, R. A., Islam, M. F., Das, P. S. and Rahman, M. M. 2025. Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 34(01), pp. 2717-2729.
Vancouver
Juthi, RA, Islam, MF, Das, PS and Rahman, MM. Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 2025 April, 34(01): 2717-2729.
Juthi, R. A. et al. “Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district”. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 34(01), (2025): 2717-2729.
APA
Juthi, R. A., Islam, M. F., Das, P. S. and Rahman, M. M. (2025). Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 34(01), 2717-2729.
Chicago
Juthi, R. A., Islam, M. F., Das, P. S. and Rahman, M. M. “Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district”. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 34(01), (2025): 2717-2729.
Harvard
Juthi, R. A., Islam, M. F., Das, P. S. and Rahman, M. M. 2025. Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 34(01), pp. 2717-2729.
Vancouver
Juthi, RA, Islam, MF, Das, PS and Rahman, MM. Causal determinism of xenobiotic pollution generated from agrochemicals use in Jamalpur district. Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research, 2025 April, 34(01): 2717-2729.
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[16]. Khatun, P., Islam, A., Sachi, S., Islam, M. Z. and Islam, P. (2023). Pesticides in vegetable production in Bangladesh: A systemic review of contamination levels and associated health risks in the last decade. Toxicology Reports, 11, 199-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2023.09.003
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[21]. Miglani, R., Parveen, N., Kumar, A., Ansari, M. A., Khanna, S., Rawat, G., Panda, A. K., Bisht, S. S., Upadhyay, J. and Ansari, M. N. (2022). Degradation of Xenobiotic Pollutants: An Environmentally Sustainable Approach. Metabolites, 12, 818. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo12090818
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[23]. Nsibande, S. A. and Forbes, P. B. C. (2016). Fluorescence detection of pesticides using quantum dot materials – A review. Analytica Chimica Acta, 945, 9-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2016.10.002
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[27]. Rahman, S. and Hossain, M. (2003). Pesticide demand in hybrid seed production technology. Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment, 1, 174-179.
[28]. Ray, S. and Shaju, S. T. (2023). Bioaccumulation of pesticides in fish resulting toxicities in humans through food chain and forensic aspects. Environ Anal Health Toxicol, 38, 2023017-0. https://doi.org/10.5620/eaht.2023017
[29]. Sarvanan, P., Sarvanan, V., Rajeshkannan, R., Arnica, G., Rajasimannan, M., Baskar, G. and pugazhendhi, A. (2024). Comprehensive review on toxic heavy metal in the aquatic system: sources, identification, treatment strategies, and health risk assessment. Environmental research, 258, 119440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.119440
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[32]. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
[33]. Yadav, I. C. and Devi, N. L. (2017). Pesticides classification and its impact on human and environment. Environmental Science and Engineering, 6, 140-158.
[34]. Zakir, H. M., Akter, A., Rahman, A., Sharmin, S. and Arafat, M. Y. (2018). Groundwater Quality Evaluation for Irrigation and Drinking Utilities Collected from Sadar Upazila of Jamalpur District, Bangladesh. Asian Journal of Applied Chemistry Research, 2, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajacr/2018/v2i19587
[35]. Zakir, H. M., Islam, M. M. and Hossain, M. S. (2016). Impact of urbanization and industrialization on irrigation water quality of a canal- a case study of Tongi canal, Bangladesh. Advance Environmental Resources, 5, 109-123. https://doi.org/10.12989/aer.2016.5.2.109
[36]. Zakir, H. M., Sattar, M. A. and Quadir, Q. F. (2015). Cadmium pollution and irrigation water quality assessment of an urban river: a case study of the Mayur River, Khulna, Bangladesh. Journal of Chemical, Biological and Physical Sciences, 5, 2133-2149.
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